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Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), a Swiss who lived in Paris, was one of the most influential political philosophers ever. His essay The Social Contract explores the dilemma of how man loses his identity and freedom by creating a state. His opening words embody his basic political theory: "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself the master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they (Crocker). Rousseau adopted many of Thomas Hobbes's theories, but he took them one step further, exploring republicanism rather than a monarchy. He was very anti-Socialist, believing that every human being has a mind of its own and that man is a race of autonomous individuals.
Rousseau acquired a bad name during his lifetime. One critic wrote of him: "He is a poor devil who torments himself and who does not dare to confess the true subject of all his sufferings, which is his cursed head and his pride" (Caitlin). He was called the "head of corruption of French society," a "despicable character," and a "contemptible rascal" (Caitlin). Only shortly after his death were his ideas taken seriously. His writings were a force that helped make the French Revolution possible. As his theories spread throughout France, the more popular they became, spiritually paving the way for a revolution. Maximilien Robespierre, the leader of the new French Republic, embraced Rousseau's ideas and used them as the basis for his Reign of Terror.
Rousseau's theories were not considered worthwhile until
after his death. He died in 1778, and the French Revolution began
in 1789. Despite the misuse of his ideas by Robespierre, Rousseau
is still considered the greatest social critic of the
Enlightenment.
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Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English political philosopher who believed that people are moved only by their own self-interests. He advocated a "natural religion" based on his theory that man is naturally immoral. In his most famous work, Leviathan, Hobbes attempted to illustrate how groups of people can also create "bodies"-societies, communities, and governments-designed to protect themselves from one another, and that these bodies are best governed by a king. Leviathan literally means "sea monster" and is used as a metaphor for a large, monstrous governmental body administered by a benevolent yet all-powerful monarch. Hobbes claimed that this absolute monarchy was the best, most just form of government.
Hobbes's reputation was not very positive during his own time. He was seen as hostile to the church, he praised toleration but at the same time advocated an absolute sovereign ruler, and he was a fierce controversialist to advancements in government and science. The public regarded Leviathan as a treachery to the cause of royalism in England, and Hobbes never quite lost the reputation of a hypocrite.
Because Hobbes has been mistreated for so long, historians found it difficult to recover his writings, many of which are in Latin, but philosophers and others are beginning to appreciate them now. They are discovering that Hobbes was one of the chief philosophers of western civilization who faced issues with intelligence and consistency, and that hardly anyone else can even compare to him.
