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René Descartes was a French philosopher, scientist, and
mathematician. He is considered as the father of modern
philosophy. His major works include Discourse on Method
(1637), Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), and Principles
of Philosophy (1644). His philosophy, also known as
Cartesianism, describes a dualistic universe that is a world
consisting of two basic substances, matter and spirit. Matter
includes everything in the physical universe and spirit consists
of the human mind. His belief is that both of these substances
can exist independently of each other. In proving his theory, he
introduced the Latin phrase cogito ergo sum, meaning I
think, therefore I am.
Descartes' philosophy was not widely accepted at first. "In France and the Low Countries, Catholic and Protestant clerics combated the new teaching" (Tsanoff). The problem was that Descartes proposed the rejection of authority and tradition, and many people viewed this as the rejection of ethics and religion. "It was said that his views led to atheism" (Russell). Descartes was aware of this possible conflict, so he tried to prevent the Catholic Church from becoming his enemy. He attempted to convince the Church that his philosophy could actually be compatible with its theology.
The other main factor affecting the acceptance of Descartes'
philosophy was the period of history in which he lived. Descartes
was writing in a time when scientists and philosophers started to
develop theories that contrasted with medieval thought. This was
around the time that Galileo suffered condemnation because of his
theories about the universe. Galileo's condemnation greatly
affected Descartes' willingness to express his own views. Fearing
that he too would be persecuted, Descartes abandoned the book he
was working on, Le Monde (The World). Descartes' book
maintained the same position as Galileo, but Descartes did not
wish to oppose the Church.
Descartes' theories gradually gained more support despite his critics, who included Hobbes, Arnauld, and Gassendi. His theories continued to be developed by his followers, such as: Berkeley, Hume, Kant, and Spinoza. With their help and the deteriorating emphasis on medieval thought, Descartes' theories became so successful that he was given the title as father of modern philosophy.
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John Locke was an important English philosopher and political
theorist. His works include Two Treaties of Government
(1690) and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).
Locke's philosophic theories center around how the mind functions
in learning. Locke opposes the theory of innate ideas and
suggests that all ideas are placed in the mind by experience. He
believes that experience comes from two different sources:
sensation and reflection. Locke also theorizes that people's
actions are determined by the option that gives them the most
pleasure under the given circumstances, also known as "the
pleasure principle."
Locke's theories met a lot of opposition from followers of rationalistic ideas. "The Essay was criticized not only by surviving scholastic Aristotelians but by rationalistic minds who sought a modern expression of their convictions in Descartes and Malebranche" (Tsanoff). Locke's ideas of empiricism contradicted with the rationalistic ideas of other philosophers. Rationalism is based on human reason and its ability to answer basic questions. Empiricism, on the other hand, states that nonanalytical truths are subject to change or replacement. These conflicting theories caused many disputes over which was most correct.
Locke also lost favor with many people due to his
anti-medieval religious views. Locke considered himself a
practical Christian who was concerned only with the backbone of
Christian religion. He did not believe in miracles or mysticism
and did not trust people who claimed to have had visions of
sacred beings, and who habitually thought about heaven and hell.
Locke even left England in exile during the reigns of Charles II
and James II, who had tried to impose Catholicism on England.
Locke's theories slowly began to gain recognition due to the
support of his followers. John Tolland was one of his followers
who expressed his views and formed arguments supporting Locke's
beliefs. Although still opposed by rationalists, "during the
latter part of the eighteenth century this theological radicalism
spread in Europe, notably France" (Tsanoff).
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